Carrhae II

Surena Sporting a Cool Tan and Hair Style

 Carrhae- Analysis and Aftermath

The battle of Carrhae was a decisive loss in the annals of Roman history. Of the confident army that crossed the Euphrates in 53 BC, 20,000 were dead, 10,000 captured, and only 5,000 made it back to tell the tale. 

Many leading Romans opposed the campaign, including Cicero, who claimed it was a war without cause. This was true, as a treaty existed between the two empires. Others claimed it was a war of aggrandisement, allowing Crassus to achieve military success equal to the other Triumvirs, Pompey and Caesar. Again, this is also true. His campaign route was also criticised. His senior officers strongly suggested that the invasion should occur through Armenia to secure that nation's significant military aid. Crassus coldly rejected the offer. He likely wanted an exclusive victory. A victory reliant solely on his own merit and the subsequent glory, Crassus didn't want to share. In this regard, Crassus was no different from a class of Romans on the treadwheel of the Cursus Honorum. The act of provoking war and chasing personal fame was inbred into aristocratic Romans. Honour and accolades awaited. The Parthians were a mere vehicle for Crassus's soon-to-be Triumph in Rome. But first, he had to swat away those pesky Parthians. Of course, the Parthians had other ideas and a well-honed battle plan.

The Roman political system was built for ambitious aristocrats to obtain money and secure honour, which could only be achieved by the force of arms. In this regard, Crassus was no different from Caesar, Pompey, and many other Romans. The clamour of approbation would have vanished if Crassus had achieved a solid military result.    

Crassus's worst mistake was not acquiring intelligence about his enemy. He had little knowledge of how the Parthians waged war and made no effort to rectify his mistake whilst on campaign. Crassus suffered from the belief that the Roman military system, once unleashed, was unbeatable. His gravest fault was hubris. Not acquiring crucial military information concerning your enemy is unforgivable in a commander, and Crassus would suffer accordingly. The Roman way of war consisted of set-piece infantry battles; however, the Parthians did not oblige in this instance. The Romans, unfamiliar with this type of warfare, as it consisted of cavalry archers adroitly managed, suffered accordingly. Surena showed his mastery of logistics by using camels as arrow bearers to replenish his mounted archers- the arrow barrage would continue to nightfall. The Parthians were skilled mounted archers who could shoot frontally and backwards on the feigned retreat. Although the Romans were heavily armoured and protected by the large scutum, inevitably, the arrows would find a mark. Publius' cavalry sortie was ill-considered. It was quickly surrounded and destroyed after being lured away from the main body of troops. It is telling that when Publius exhorted his cavalry to attack, his men protested, exhibiting their pierced hands and feet. 

Crassus was too trusting of his native guides and failed to unearth their motivations for providing help. In fact, they had been planted by the cunning Parthians to purposely lead the Romans astray (silly Crassus).  He was lured into the waterless desert, a terrain perfect for Surena's horse archers. The treacherous Arab guide, Ariamnes, also assured Crassus that the opposing Parthian army was relatively small in number and posed little threat to the mighty Roman legions. Again, during Crassus' final retreat, he was lured into unfavourable marshland by treachery.

No doubt, Crassus was a fool for not accepting Armenian help. The Armenians could supply 36,000 troops, and an invasion from Armenian territory benefited the Romans. Surena would have had difficulty enacting the battle on favourable terms due to the hilly terrain, which was totally unsuited for cavalry. Also, the Armenians knew the territory well and would have guided the Roman army along the most advantageous route into the Parthian heartland. Furthermore, the Armenians were well aware of the battle order of the Parthians and their reliance on horse archers. This knowledge would have served the Romans well and helped formulate troop dispositions. Although the Romans had encountered horse archers before, these experiences were little more than skirmishes. The battle of Carrhae was the first time a Roman army faced a massed cavalry army entirely devoted to archery.

Crassus was complacent. The Romans had previously faced off against eastern armies and generally had defeated much larger armies with relative ease. Crassus, therefore, underestimated the Parthians—a grievous fault in any general. Ultimately, his overweening confidence contributed greatly to his downfall. This is particularly puzzling as Crassus was no novice to war. Indeed, he was deemed a competent soldier and was responsible for finally ending the Third Servile War led by the legendary Sparticus. However, this victory occurred decades ago in 71 BC.     

Aftermath

This was a decisive Roman defeat, and with the defeat came lost prestige. Also, seven Eagle Standards carried by the legions had been lost to the enemy, a major disgrace for Rome. The standards were finally returned in 20 BC after negotiations with the Parthians mediated by Augustus.

The Triumvirate of Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar had been a difficult political balancing act. Crassus' death changed the political dynamic, and soon, Caesar and Pompey would go to war to vie for ultimate power in Rome. The scene was set for the dreadful and debilitating Civil War of 49-45 BC. The aftermath signalled the death of Republican Rome and the introduction of Imperial Rome. In addition, Rome's ambitions in the east were curtailed, and the Parthians took advantage of the defeat by invading Rome's ally, Armenia. This placed the Parthians in a favourable position to invade Roman-held Syria. Initially, they were beaten by Cassius, he of Caesar assassination fame. Over the next two decades, Parthia invaded the Roman East at will, occupying Syria twice. The Parthian victory ended the concord between these two great empires and placed the Roman province of Syria under grave danger for decades.

Conclusion

Crassus's bid for vainglory not only ended in personal tragedy but also brought grave consequences for Rome. Rome's perceived invincibility was no more. It also precipitated the collapse of the Republican system that had served the Romans well for many centuries and hurried the arrival of one-man rule. The defeat broke the peace with the Parthian Empire, and the following incursions by the Parthians into Roman-held territory would be the source of much mischief and calamity for the Romans for years to come. Thus, Crassus' defeat had profound implications for Rome and ultimately would set the scene for great misery, death and destruction.

Footnote

Suruna, the Parthian general at Carrhae, did not survive long following his great victory. Unfortunately, he was seen as a threat to the incumbent Parthian monarch, Orodès II, and was thus unceremoniously dispatched.   

 

  

Carrhae Part I

Parthian Shot

Rome of 59 BC was in a state of political flux. The Republican system was coming to an end. Ambitious Romans were vying for ultimate rule. The first Triumvirate, which consisted of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, was an informal association between these talented, rich and powerful men. Crassus was the richest man in Rome, while Pompey was a highly successful general. Caesar was the junior member of the group, but the other two recognised Caesar's undoubted political and burgeoning military ability. The idea of the Triumvirate was to influence and dominate the political scene using their wealth and political reach. They utilised this combined power to ensure each member was assigned a province to maximise their political ends. In 55 BC, Crassus secured the governorship of Syria. At this time, Caesar was busy conquering Gaul while Pompey was sent to govern Spain,

Although Crassus was extremely rich and immensely influential on the political scene, he wanted to increase his gravitas by a spectacular military victory. He felt inferior to his two political colleagues in this regard. Pompey was an acclaimed general with many important victories under his belt, and Caesar was making a name for himself during the conquest of Gaul. That said, Crassus was no military slouch himself, although his greatest feats were decades ago- he needed to burnish his military reputation with a great victory.  It was no secret that once ensconced as the governor of Syria, Crassus intended to provoke war with the powerful Parthian empire to the east. Thus, in the autumn of 54 BC, Crassus crossed the Euphrates River with an army of 50,000 men. He quickly overcame several towns in Mesopotamia. Many of the towns in the region contained a large Greek contingent sympathetic to Rome, greatly aiding his success. After leaving garrisons in the subdued towns, he retreated back over the Euphrates and retired into winter quarters. Crassus was puzzled. During the campaign, the Parthian army was nowhere to be seen, leaving the Roman army unmolested.

Whilst in winter quarters, Crassus was approached by the king of Armenia. The king offered to supply 36,000 men for the campaign if Crassus invaded Parthia from Armenian territory. Undoubtedly, the wily Armenian king hoped his help would aid in annexing territory from the Parthians. The alliance made good military sense, but was rejected by Crassus. Perhaps Crassus did not want to share and dilute his military victory by invoking the help of a foreign power. Thus, Crassus crossed the Euphrates again in the summer of 53 BC. It was hoped that this time he could provoke the Parthians to battle, undoubtedly securing a decisive Roman victory and bringing glory and accolades that Crassus thought were rightly his. However, the Parthians had other ideas. A traitorous Arab guide persuaded Crassus that the best route was through desert territory, but this was a ploy to draw out the Romans into a waterless wasteland.  

The Roman way of making war was the standard Western method of war inherited from the Greeks. Large infantry armies would face off and engage while cavalry occupied a subordinate role. Here, Roman discipline, training and arms would prevail over the ragtag Eastern army. Once again, Roman arms would sweep all before it- a new Roman province would be born. While marching east, Crassus' scouts encountered a Parthian army on its way to battle. Crassus' day of glory had arrived. But unlike his expectations, he was not to face an infantry army. The army, 10,000 strong, was mostly comprised of mounted horse archers. The remaining contingent consisted of heavily armoured horsemen (Cataphracts).           

To counter the archers, Crassus had his men form an open square. In this way, he sought to avoid envelopment as he continued his march. The archers surrounded the Romans and shot volley after volley into the Roman square. The large scutum carried by the soldiers protected them well from the arrows, but an arrow would occasionally find a foot or hand. Crassus surmised that the arrow storm would soon end as the archers exhausted their supply of missiles. However, the cunning Parthian general, Surena, had ensured that his men would be well supplied as he had organised teams of camels laden/burdened with replacement arrows. Crassus hadn't bargained for this continuous barrage, and the casualties were starting to add up. It must have been infuriating for the troops as they could not reply. At this stage, Crassus reasoned that the only way to get to grips with the enemy was to utilise his cavalry. Under Crassus' son, Publius, the cavalry stormed out of the square. In response, the archers took flight and retreated. As the archers retreated, they twisted and delivered a backwards parting shot. This technique became known as the 'Parthian Shot'. The retreat was a feint, and soon Publius and his men faced archers and heavy Parthian cavalry. The Roman troop became surrounded, and in desperation, Publius beseeched one of his men to kill him lest he fall into the clutches of a cruel enemy. The defeat became known to Crassus when a lone Parthian rider paraded in front of the Roman line holding Publius' severed head.   

At the sight of his son's detached noggin so carelessly displayed, Cassius suffered a bout of 'Nervous Prostration' and lost the will to command.  Two legates took control and issued orders for a night march back to Roman-controlled territory. As night fell, an eerie silence descended upon the Roman camp as the Parthians called a halt to all offensive activities. The Romans took advantage of the lull and set out in the dark, desperately seeking to reach friendly lines. It was a pitiful sight as the wounded were abandoned, knowing that morning would bring certain death.   

By the morning, the battered remnants of the Roman army had reached the Roman-held town of Carrhae. During the night march, wounded men and stragglers had been left behind only to fall into the hands of a vengeful enemy in the morning. Eventually, the Parthian general, Surena, arrived outside the town and demanded that Crassus be sent to him in chains. It was deemed that the town could not be defended from the Parthians, and Crassus decided that his men should split up into separate groups and make a forced night march to reach the Euphrates. However, a traitorous guide led Crassus's ragtag army into a swamp. Under these dire conditions, the Romans took refuge on a hill. In the morning, Crassus agreed to treat with the Parthians. Surena offered safe passage from Parthian territory if Crassus signed a peace treaty. During the meet, the Parthains placed Crassus on a horse draped in rich trappings, clearly mocking Crassus for his wealth. The Roman party recognised the insult, and a fight broke out between the opposing troops, and during the melee, Crassus was killed. It is said that molten gold was poured down Crassus' mouth, but this report is likely hyperbole on behalf of the reporter.    

This post is already too long, and I haven't started on my analysis. It will have to await until the next post, coming soon.